Lesson 1 — What Is Ontology?

Ontology is the foundation of all research design.

Before asking:

• How should we collect data?
• Which method should we use?
• Is this hypothesis valid?

We must ask:

What kind of reality must exist for this research to make sense?

Ontology answers the question of being — what exists and what kind of existence it has.

In research terms, ontology determines:

• Whether variables are assumed to exist independently
• Whether patterns are assumed to be discoverable
• Whether social categories are “real” or constructed

Without ontological clarity, research becomes technically sophisticated but philosophically incoherent.

Key Thinkers:

• René Descartes
• Baruch Spinoza

Realism holds that:

• Reality exists independently of human perception.
• Structures, laws, and causal mechanisms are not created by observers.
• Human understanding may be flawed, but reality itself is not dependent on belief.

Descartes’ Contribution

Descartes establishes certainty through rational structure.

Even if perception is doubtful, structured existence remains.

This supports the idea that:

• Economic systems
• Technological architectures
• Market mechanisms

Exist independently of individual interpretation.

Spinoza’s Contribution

Spinoza pushes realism further:

Reality follows logical necessity.

This implies:

• Systems are structured.
• Causes produce effects.
• Reality is ordered, not arbitrary.

Key Thinker:

• George Berkeley

Berkeley argues:

To be is to be perceived.

This radically changes ontology.

Reality is not independent structure.

Reality is perception-dependent.

What This Means

• Objects are bundles of sensory experience.
• Categories exist through interpretation.
• Meaning precedes structure.

In research:

• “Leadership effectiveness” exists through perception.

• “Organizational culture” exists through shared meaning.

• “Innovation” is context-dependent.

Application in Business & IT

If you assume relativism:

• You cannot treat organizational culture as a measurable independent entity.

• User experience is not reducible to system metrics.

• Technology adoption is shaped by interpretation.

This leads to:

• Qualitative methods
• Interpretive research
• Context-sensitive analysis

Ontology in research defines the nature of reality and what constitutes "truth," with primary types including realism (one objective reality exists independently) and relativism/constructivism (multiple realities are socially constructed). These stances determine whether researchers seek to measure objective facts (quantitative) or understand subjective experiences (qualitative).

Major types of ontology in research include:

• Realism (Objectivism): Assumes an objective, external reality exists independent of human perceptions or social actors. It is often associated with positivism and quantitative research, focusing on discovering universal truths.

• Relativism (Constructivism): Posits that reality is subjective, context-bound, and created by human interaction, meaning multiple, evolving realities coexist. This aligns with interpretive, qualitative approaches.

• Structural Realism (Neorealism): A type of realism that assumes a single objective reality exists, but its underlying nature is either unknowable or partially hidden.

• Critical Realism: Combines a realist ontology (a real world exists) with a relativistic epistemology (our understanding of it is socially constructed and fallible).

• Nominalism: An extreme form of subjectivism that argues social reality is merely a construction of names, labels, and concepts used to structure experience, rather than something that exists independently. 

These ontological positions dictate whether research focuses on measuring, predicting, or interpreting phenomena. 

Objectivism and Nominalism differ primarily on the existence of universals and the nature of concepts. Objectivism holds that concepts are objective, based on real similarities in reality. Nominalism denies that universals exist outside the mind, claiming concepts are mere labels for unique, individual objects. Objectivism is rooted in reality, while nominalism is often linked to subjectivity. Key Differences:

• Universals (Commonalities): Objectivism (specifically Ayn Rand's) posits that concepts represent objective, essential, and shared characteristics among entities. Nominalism argues that things are purely individual, and universals are only names ("nomina") or labels, not real entities.

• Concepts and Classification: In Objectivism, classification is based on discovering the objective, inherent structure of reality. In nominalism, concepts are considered subjective or arbitrary mental groupings.

• Basis of Reality: Objectivism claims that concepts exist to bridge the mind with objective, independent reality. Nominalists typically argue that only particular, tangible objects exist in space and time.

• Epistemology: Objectivism relies on rational observation of reality to form concepts. Nominalism often aligns with empiricism, focusing on sensory data, and can lead to skepticism regarding objective, universal truths. 

Key Takeaways:

• Objectivism (Ayn Rand): "Concepts are not arbitrary, but are based on the measurement-omission of reality".

• Nominalism: "Concepts are subjective mental shortcuts or names used to organize experiences of unique, unrelated particulars". 

The two views clash, particularly when debating whether classification is discovered (Objectivism) or invented (Nominalism). 

In the philosophy of science, the debate between structural realism and constructed reality (often associated with social constructionism or constructive empiricism) centers on whether scientific knowledge represents the objective, underlying structure of the world or if it is a human-made model designed to fit observations.

• Structural Reality (Structural Realism):Asserts that science provides knowledge of the mathematical or relational structure of the world, rather than the intrinsic nature of objects.

• Constructed Reality (Social Constructionism/Anti-realism): Argues that scientific knowledge, including its entities and laws, is a human creation or a conceptual tool developed to organize data, mediated by social and historical contexts. 

Structural Realism (Structural Reality)Structural realism is a "middle ground" position between scientific realism (we know everything about objects) and anti-realism (we know nothing about the unobservable world). 

• Core Idea: When scientific theories change, the "objects" (e.g., luminiferous aether) are discarded, but the mathematical equations (structure) often survive and are incorporated into new theories.

• Epistemic Structural Realism (ESR):Argues that we only have access to the mathematical structure of the world, not the nature of the entities themselves.

• Ontic Structural Realism (OSR): A more radical view proposing that there are no "things" at all; reality is composed entirely of structures, relations, and "relations all the way down".

• Purpose: It attempts to reconcile the success of science (no-miracles argument) with the fact that theories change over time (pessimistic induction). 

Constructed Reality (Constructed Reality)This perspective suggests that what we call "reality" in science is actually a model built by scientists to fit experience, often influenced by social, cultural, or pragmatic factors. 

• Constructive Empiricism (Bas van Fraassen): Argues that science aims for "empirical adequacy" (fitting observations) rather than truth about unobservable entities. Entities like quarks or genes might be seen as conceptual tools, not necessarily real, independently existing, material objects.

• Social Constructionism: Emphasizes that scientific knowledge is built through social agreements, laboratory practices, and consensus, rather than simply "discovered".

• Key Question: Whether entities (like electrons, species, or genes) are real objects or merely conceptual constructs. 

This distinction is central for thesis design.

Structural reality implies:

• Causal mechanisms
• Measurable constraints
• Law-like regularities

Constructed reality implies:

• Context-dependent meaning
• Interpretive flexibility
• Social negotiation

Advanced Exercise

Take the concept: “Market efficiency.”

Ask:

• Is efficiency structurally real?

• Or is it a theoretical construct imposed by economists?

Your ontological answer changes your entire research design.

Realist ontology is flexible.

It can support:

• Empiricism
• Rationalism
• Critical rationalism

But relativist ontology cannot support strict positivism.

Why?

Because positivism assumes:

• Objective measurable entities
• Universal generalization

If reality is constructed, universal law collapses.

This is ontological asymmetry.

Realist and relativist ontologies differ on whether reality is objective and independent or subjective and constructed. Realism posits a single, mind-independent reality governed by natural laws that exists regardless of human perception. Relativism argues that reality is socially constructed, multiple, and dependent on context and the observer. 

Realist Ontology (Objective Reality)

• Nature of Reality: There is one objective reality that exists independently of human belief, knowledge, or perception.

• Truth: Truth is singular, universal, and can be discovered.

• Focus: Facts, measurable, generalizable.

• Common in: Quantitative research, science, and positivism. 

Relativist Ontology (Subjective/Multiple Realities)

• Nature of Reality: Reality is constructed in the human mind and through social interactions.

• Truth: Truth is subjective, multiple, and contextual.

• Focus: Meaning, interpretations, context-bound.

• Common in: Qualitative research, social constructionism. 

Key Differences and Hybrids

While realists believe in an external reality, relativists believe reality is created through experiences and perceptions. 

• Critical Realism: A hybrid approach that acknowledges an external reality exists, but our understanding of it is constructed and mediated through interpretation, Studocu.

• Comparison: Relativism holds that multiple, valid interpretations of a single situation can exist, while realism seeks to find the one true, accurate, and, SciSpace. 

Reality constrains knowledge.

Knowledge does not symmetrically construct reality.

Example:

If inflation rises, businesses suffer.

Your belief does not remove inflation.

But your interpretation can misrepresent inflation.

Reality limits knowledge.

Knowledge does not eliminate reality.

Common thesis mistake:

Student writes:

“Reality is socially constructed.”

Then runs regression analysis to generalize universal laws.

This mixes:

Relativist ontology

with

Positivist epistemology

Result: incoherence.

Relativist ontology in qualitative research posits that reality is subjective, multiple, and socially constructed rather than singular or objective. It holds that reality varies by individual, culture, and context, focusing on how people interpret their experiences. This perspective emphasizes in-depth, context-dependent understanding over universal generalization. 

Key aspects of relativist ontology in qualitative research:

• Multiple Realities: Reality is fluid, negotiated, and exists only as constructed within the human mind, rather than existing independently of observers.

• Contextual Understanding: It centers on understanding the specific social, cultural, and historical contexts that shape an individual's interpretation of reality.

• Qualitative Methods: This ontology typically employs qualitative methods, such as in-depth interviews, focus groups, and ethnography, to explore participants' lived experiences, meanings, and perspectives.

• Researcher-Participant Interaction:Knowledge is considered subjective and co-created through the relationship between the researcher and the participant.

• Applicability: It is commonly used in studies that aim to understand, rather than measure, complex human phenomena. 

Relativism differs significantly from realism, which assumes a single external reality exists independently of the researcher. It is commonly associated with interpretivist, constructivist, and critical paradigms. 

Realist ontology in qualitative research asserts that an objective, external reality exists independently of human perception, cognition, and observation. It posits that a single, tangible social world exists, and while human understanding of it may be fallible, researchers can uncover or approximate this reality. Unlike pure constructivism, this view focuses on identifying underlying structures, mechanisms, and objective truths rather than purely subjective experiences. 

Key Principles of Realist Ontology in Qualitative Research

• Independent Reality: The social world (including structures, events, and objects) exists regardless of whether it is being researched, observed, or interpreted.

• Objectivity: While acknowledging research is conducted by humans, the goal is to minimize personal bias to understand the "true" nature of the phenomenon.

• Truth-Seeking: The research aims to judge some accounts of reality as more accurate or "truthful" than others.

• Structure over Surface: Often aligned with critical realism, this approach seeks to understand the underlying mechanisms (causal powers) that produce observable events, rather than just describing the events themselves. 

Application in Qualitative Research

Realist ontology is often combined with interpretive epistemologies in qualitative methods, such as: 

• Case Study Research: Investigating specific contexts to understand how real-world, objective mechanisms operate.

• Thematic Analysis: Analyzing participant accounts not merely as subjective experiences, but as data reflecting an objective reality or "truth".

• Phenomenology: Sometimes, realistic approaches to phenomenology still aim to uncover the essential, objective structure of a lived experience. 

Contrast with Other Perspectives

• Realist vs. Relativist: A realist believes in one, objective reality; a relativist believes in multiple, socially constructed realities.

• Realist vs. Constructivist: A realist treats the social world as a "hotel" (independently exists), while a constructivist treats it as a "home" (constantly built and changed by individuals). 

Benefits of a Realist Approach
Using a realist framework in qualitative research allows for robust, explanatory, and deep understanding of phenomena, moving beyond description to causal explanation of social structures and actions. It is often described as a "critical realism" that avoids the naivety of thinking we can know reality perfectly, but maintains that a real, independent world exists to be studied.